Wednesday, February 25, 2009

Hello! We are three very happy and cheerful girls from Paya Lebar methodist Girls School Secondary. We visited Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve on 12 February 2009 for a field trip, and this is our project on the trip. You will find interesting articles, write-ups and pictures in this blog.

Our tour guide for that day was Mr. Teo. He brought us around the place and pointed out some interesting animals and plants. We even watched an interesting video about mangroves afterwards.

So feel free to browse around! Thank you:)


Protecting Mangrove Forests
Protecting the mangrove forests requires educating the consumers in the wealthy nations that import these luxury shrimp products. Reducing the demand for pond-raised shrimp reduces the pressure on the mangroves. Stricter government laws and enforcement in protecting mangroves is also an important factor. Education at the local level as to the importance of preserving these swamps in order to maintain the coastal environment is essential.


History and Biodiversity of Singapore’s mangroves
At the time of the founding of modern Singapore in 1819, forest covered practically the whole of the main island. Of the original forest area, evergreen rain forest made up 82%, mangrove 13% and freshwater swamp forest, 5%. Today, only about 28.6 sq km of land area is still covered by primary and secondary forest, and this habitat loss in Singapore has reduced her primary forest cover to an estimated 0.2% of the land.
Singapore is a city state off the southern tip of Peninsular Malaysia, with 64 islands, including the main island of Singapore which is approximately 42 by 23 km. The republic has an area of 647.5 sq km, and a population of some three million people consisting of ethnic Chinese, Malays, Indians, Eurasians and other ethnic groups. Being only approximately 137 km north of the Equator, Singapore has a tropical climate with relatively uniform temperature, abundant rainfall and high humidity throughout the year. The average daily temperature is 26.7 degC (range 23.9-30.8 degC). Average annual rainfall is 2,353 mm with no distinctly dry or wet periods. The daily relative humidity averages at 84.3%.
With industrialisation and development, Singapore's area is now as follows: built-up (49.7%), with the remainder as farms (1.7%), forest (4.4%), marsh and tidal waste (2.4%) and others (including inland reservoirs, cemeteries, public gardens, etc.) (41.9%). With a population density of 5,354 per sq km, the third highest in the world, the pressure for land is thus very high.Estuarine and tidal habitats have been badly affected by the construction of reservoirs and land reclamation. Six estuarine reservoirs were formed by damming rivers draining to the north and west coasts between 1972 and 1984. From the 1960's to the present day, land reclamation has increased the original land area by one-tenth, altering most of the southern and north-eastern coasts.






Mangrove forest cover has been reduced from an estimated 13% in the 1820's to only 0.5% of the total land area. Mangrove forest.is now found only in small patches with the largest areas in the northern part of the main island and on Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin and Pulau Semakau. In the 90's, large mangrove areas west of the Causeway were developed for housing and other uses.
Some of the more interesting mangrove locations: here are some sketch maps with site codes that can be used as a reference.Mandai Besar/KechilLim Chu KangKranjiSungei PandanSungei Punggol andPulau Tekong and Pulau Ubin
The mangrove forests that remain are no longer complete ecosystems. As with habitats all over Singapore, animals at the top of the food chain have long since disappeared. In mangroves, this means the absence of tigers and crocodiles. However, this also means that it is relatively safe for researchers to explore without fear of disappearing!
Botanists of the National Parks Board discovered this previously undocumented stand of Sonneratia caseolaris trees at Sungei Seletar in 1998. It is actually viewable in the distance from Lentor Avenue! This tree is thought to be associated with fireflies, and can tolerate freshwater conditions. In the foreground is the characteristic fruit.
And researchers have been busy! Even with seed plants quite well accounted for, new records or rediscoveries are revealed. Botanists discovered a stand of Berembang (Sonneratia caseolaris) in the upper reaches of Sungei Seletar only last year (1998). Prior to this, only a single tree of this species in Woodlands was known of in Singapore!The checklist of the more diverse fauna is far from complete.Quite incredibly, even in just the small north-western portion of the very little mangrove that we have left, collections by local and international scientists in the 1990's alone have led to the description of many new species of animals!

There are lots more new species out there, with many interesting stories about their lives. The little mangrove we have left is still a very interesting place, and promises to reveal more in the years to come.


Mangrove Swamps consist of a variety of salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that thrive in shallow and muddy saltwater or brackish waters. Mangroves can easily be identified by their root system. These roots have been specially adapted to their conditions by extending above the water. Vertical branches, pheumatophores, act as aerating organs filtering the salt out and allowing the leaves to receive fresh water.
Mangroves are thought to have originated in the Far East then over millions of years the plants and seeds floated west across the ocean to the Galapagos Islands. Mangroves live within specific zones in their ecosystem. Depending on the species they occur along the shoreline, in sheltered bays, and others are found further inland in estuaries. Mangroves also vary in height depending on species and environment.


Large demographic pressure is exerting tremendous stress on the coastal environment. The main culprit in the destruction of mangroves is man. To achieve harmful supremacy over nature, human have destroyed this magnificent ecosystem almost irreparably. Land reclamations and industrial effluents are the major causes of mangroves degradation.Systematic dumping of all kinds of waste and debris in the mangrove areas destroys them. Land reclamations and industrial effluents are the major causes of mangroves degradation.
This waste/debris creates a barrier preventing the sea water from entering the mangroves and eventually kills the mangroves. In many instances, this is done intentionally to reclaim land for construction activity. There is an urgent need to stop this systematic degradation of mangroves.

Major threats
• Land reclamations for construction activity, aquaculture, agriculture, tourism• Industrial and domestic pollution• Port development• Dumping of all kinds of waste and debris• Deforestation for fuel wood• Over harvesting of marine resources






Threats to the Mangroves
Resistant by nature, mangroves have withstood natural disasters for millions of years, now this valuable ecosystem is among the most threatened habitats in the world. Until recently these areas were considered useless wastelands making it easy for exploitation. The rapidly growing shrimp industry has been the biggest threat to the mangroves. Forests have been clear-cut in order to provide a cheap source of land and water for shrimp farmers. The dense forests are destroyed to make room for artificial shrimp ponds. Globally 50% of the mangrove forests have been destroyed due to clear cutting for shrimp farms. On the mainland of Ecuador between 20-50% of the mangrove forests have been demolished. Northwest region of Ecuador alone lost nearly 90% of its Mangroves.


The Importance of Mangroves to the Ecosystem
Mangroves are a unique part of the coastal ecosystem. The fallen leaves and branches from the mangroves provide nutrients that support a variety of sea life. The shallow waters within the Mangrove swamp provide a nursery for young fish, crabs, shrimps, mollusks and rays. Mangroves provide a nesting area for hundreds of bird species. In the Galapagos Mangrove Finch, Medium Ground Finch, Dark-Billed Cocos, Herons, Yellow Warblers, Mockingbirds and Small Ground Finch all can be found in the Mangroves.
Mangroves help protect the coastline from erosion, storm damage and wave action. They prevent shoreline erosion by acting as buffers, catching the soils and other materials that run off the land and stabilizing the soils and nutrients lost from erosion.


Mangrove Functions and Values
Mangroves trap and cycle various organic materials, chemical elements, and important nutrients in the coastal eco-system.
Mangroves provide one of the basic food chain resources for marine organisms. The leaves of mangroves last for approximately a year before falling into the water where bacteria and fungus decompose the leaves – these leaves form the base of the food chain. The mixture of decaying plant material, soil, water, fungus and bacteria makes up Detritus (pronounced “di-tri-tes”) which provides food for marine organisms – i.e. crabs, shrimps, oysters, claims, anchovies, mullets. These marine species in turn provide food for larger species, i.e. Snook, Seatrout, Red Drum and Pinfish, Mangrove Snapper, Tarpon, which in turn provide food for Bottle Nosed Dolphins, Bull Sharks, Alligators, pelicans, Great Blue Herons, Egrets, Wood Storks, Eagles, Osprey – and humans.
Mangroves provide physical habitat and nursery grounds for a wide variety of marine organisms, many of which have important recreational or commercial value. For example, the pneumataphores of the Black Mangrove provide safety for many marine animals, sheltering crabs, shrimp, fish and clams, protecting many from predators.
Mangroves serve as storm buffers by reducing wind and wave action in shallow shoreline areas.
Mangrove seedlings unlike other plants whose seedlings need to be germinated, are alive and ready to grow. The moment they are dropped from the parent plant they have the ability to take root and produce trees.
An estimated 500,000 acres of mangroves remain in the coastal areas of Central and South Florida. It is estimated that approximately 80% are under governmental or private ownership or control for conservation and preservation purposes.


Button Mangrove or Buttonwood
Button Mangrove or Buttonwood (Conocarpus erecta) is not a true mangrove, yet this tree usually found in the higher mangrove elevations. They have dark gray bark and leaves which are either oval, leathery and smooth green or sharply pointed with salt glands at the base. Buttons have green flowers that mature into a round purple fruit.


White Mangroves (Laguncularia Racemosa)
White Mangroves, usually found at higher elevations (further upland than the red or black mangroves) can easily be identified by:
Their leaves which are light green in color, approximately 3 inches long, rounded at both ends – often having a notch in the tip.
At the base of their leaves, where the leaves meet the stems, you will find two bumps. These bumps are glands which excrete the salt found in the water.The seedlings of the White Mangrove are pod-shaped, about the size of a nickel and whitish in color.
White Mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) grows into a shrub with aerial roots close to the water. They thrive in areas with infrequent tidal flooding. Leaves are smooth, oblong and light green in color with notched tips.


Black Mangrove (Avicennia Germinans)
Black Mangroves, larger and taller than the Red and White Mangroves because of their age, they are found upland of the Red Mangroves at higher elevations. These old timers are the most cold tolerant of the three species found in Florida. They can readily be identified by:
Looking at the ground. These trees are surrounded by pneumatophores (prounounced “new-mat-afores”) – stick-like structures (growths) - pointing skyward from the soil surrounding the trunk of the tree. Pneumatophores come from the roots of the Black Mangroves and help the tree to breathe. This species of mangrove generally grows in areas where the soil is saturated with water – without the pneumatophores, which act like a diver’s snorkel, the tree would lack the oxygen it needs to survive.
The bark of a Black Mangrove is dark.
The leaves are shiny dark green on the top, oblong and pointed at the tip. The undersides of the leaves are a dull green color with short dense hairs - glands - which excrete salt – the leaves serve as a back-up system for ridding the Black Mangrove of the salt that has not been excreted by the roots. When early settlers came to Florida they harvested salt from the Black Mangrove leaves.
The seedlings produced by these trees are light green in color and shaped like large coins.

Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans) has the highest salt tolerant leaves of all the mangroves the leaves and is equipped with special salt-extracting glands. Trees grow to 65 ft (20 m) in height; the long spreading branches are covered by a dark brown bark. Leaves grow in pairs, leathery in texture with a narrow oval shape. The top leaf is dark green and the bottom is pale with hairs often coated with salt. The trees' yellow flowers grow in clusters developing into a green lima bean shaped fruit. Black mangroves have a carpet of short aerial roots or pneumatophores surrounding the base of the tree.
Black Mangoves surrounded by pneumatophores which provide their oxygen when they are submerged by tidal flows.


Red Mangrove (Rhizophora Mangle)
The Red Mangrove - also known as the “Walking Tree” - can be identified by the trunk roots which have a reddish color to the bark.
They have shiny deep green leaves which are lighter on the underside. The leaves measure 1-5 inches in length and are broad and blunt at the tip.
Their prop roots - arching out from the trunk and the branches, produce additional roots and give the tree the appearance that it is walking into the water.
Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) is the most common in the Galapagos named for its reddish wood. This species is used around the world as a source of charcoal and tannins for leather working. Trees grow to 72 ft (22 m) in height, yet red mangroves also can be seen as small bushes. The thick leathery leaves grow in pairs with a dark green leaf above and pale yellow leaf below. Red mangroves have yellow flowers that grow in groups of 2 or 3. Red mangroves can be seen growing near the low tide zone as well as at higher elevations mixed with other mangrove species.

The red mangroves are the first flora to populate a volcanic island in the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador.
The survival of this tree in brackish water is a direct result of the tree’s ability to adapt to its environment by using its roots to remove 99/100ths of the salt from the water it drinks. Red Mangrove tissue samples, when analyzed, revealed that the salt content of the water in those samples had approximately 1/100th of the salt found in the water in which the trees were growing.
The Red Mangrove produces bud-like growths which grow into torpedo-shaped seedlings known as propagules. These seedlings eventually fall into the water and either take root in the ground below or float and drift with the tides until suitable ground is found. A red mangrove propagule can drift for a year before rooting and producing a tree.


What are Mangroves?
Mangroves are tropical plants which are found along much of the world’s tropical coasts. They grow in loose, wet soils, salt water, and are periodically submerged by tidal flows. Their distribution throughout the world is affected by climate, salinity of the water, fluctuation of the tides, type of soil in the area and, more recently, by development of tidal wetlands for residential use as well as industrial, i.e. shrimp farms.


Reflections
This trip was my maiden trip to Sungei Buloh, and during the trip, I managed to get a breath of much-needed fresh air, and also at the same time, learn more about the beauty of nature through mangroves with my fellow classmates and friends. I saw the giant mudskipper, but before that, I had no idea what a regular mudskipper looked like! I spotted many other interesting animals like the tree climbing tree crab, the Siput Timba and the Thais Gradata.
This trip was fun, and was informative at the same time, as our guide, Mr Teo, was clear in his speech and was also funny, and therefore we could learn and absorb a lot of the information provided by him. The reserve was also very clean, and there was no litter on the ground and the landscape of the reserve was very beautifully designed in a way that we could enjoy its astounding beauty.
All in all, I enjoyed this trip tremendously and would certainly return again!
Nicole Lim Chyi Sec 2-1 B (12)





I think that the trip to Sungei Buloh was really interesting. I learnt a lot from the trip. I got to see, feel and soetimes even smell the different animals, plants and environments of the mangroves. I got to see many amazing animals I had never seen before. An example would be the tree-climbing crab and the other crabs I saw. Also, the large spider we saw was amazing.

Sungei Buloh was also filled with greenery and plants that were really beautiful. I learnt about how some plants were poisonous, and saw some beautiful flowers. The atmosphere there was wonderful, and I learnt a lot. The trip was well-planned and great, and ovrall, I give it the thmbs-up!

Abigail Lim Su Ann Sec 2-1B (1)


Through the sungei buloh trip i've learnt a lot. I saw many new mangrove plants and animals i've never seen before. It was really an eye opener. It was very interesting because I managed to see some creatures face to face, instead of just looking at their pictures on textbooks. The tour guide, Mr Teo, was very friendly, and was very knowledgeable as he was able to answer all our questions.
overall i enjoyed the trip and would like to go back to learn more

Angelyn Ong Hui Sze (01) sec2-1A







Mangrove trees are important in many ways, and hese are the ways man has used them for:

Avicennia marina(Avicenniaceae)/ Mchu
Main: no substantial utilisation
Secondary: low quality firewood, charcoal, bed posts, chair legs, table legs, fencing posts, crushing poles, crushing mortar, serving dishes, drums, boat ribs, board games (bao), bee-hives and traditional drums; the roots provide remedies for fever and insecticides

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Rhizophoraceae)/Mshinzi, Muia, Mkoko wimbi
Main: building material, roof supports, high quality firewood
Secondary: high quality charcoal, boat padles, oars, handcraft handles, axes handles, pounding poles, bee-hives and traditional drums; the roots provide remedies

Ceriops tagal (Rhizophoraceae)/Mkandaa mwekundu, Mkoko mtune
Main: building material, paddles, oars, medium quality firewood, charcoal, dyes (incl. tanning compounds), fishing traps

Heritiera littoralis (Sterculiaceae)/Msikundazi
Main: charcoal
Secondary: fire wood, building wood

Lumnitzera racemosa (Combretaceae)/Kilalamba dume, Kikandaa, Mkaa pwani
Main: no substantial utilisation
Subsidiary: building wood, medium quality firewood and charcoal

Pemphis acidula (Lythraceae)/Kilalamba kike
Main: fire wood, charcoal
Subsidiary: building wood

Rhizophora mucronata (Rhizophoraceae)/Magoni, Mkoko, Mkoko pwani
Main: building wood, high quality charcoal
Secondary: high quality firewood, dyes (incl. tanning compounds), medicines, ointments, bow-nets (using roots), fishing traps, weapons

Sonneratia alba (Sonneratiaceae)/Mlilana
Main: canoes, boat ribs, paddles, masts, floating fishing gears, window and door frames
Secondary: medium quality firewood and charcoal

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)/Mkomafi
Main: canoes, charcoal
Secondary: fire wood
Subsidiary: the fruits provide remedies for stomach-ache

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Meliaceae)/Mkumafi dume
Main: high quality timber ofr bed construction, window and door frames, medium quality charcoal
Secondary: medium quality firewood


2. Charcoal production

Charcoal production is a traditional activity in some coastal communities, especially on Zanzibar Island (Tanzania). The intensity of charcoal production is increasing in these last years. The reasons are both on the demand and the supply side. In fact, the demand is rising as a consequence of population growth and of the arrival of numerous tourists along the East Africa coasts. On the supply side, there is the growth of village populations and of cash requirement especially for the younger generations.
Charcoal makers define this activity as very tiring: moving in a mangrove forest is not easy and, once the right trees are selected, it takes several days to cut them down and bring the wood to the place where the charcoal is produced, and finally to build up the pile. The slowness of the cutting process depends on the fact that the only tool used is a machete, the lack of motor saw probably represents an exploitation control, better than any conservation measures.
The final operation consists on covering the pile with soil and ashes and then fire it inside, the combustion proceeds for about one week, during which it should be checked out periodically.
The advantages of this activity are fast incomes (one production process takes from two to four weeks, depending on the size of the hump) and no initial investments. People resort to it when in the need of cash, especially before celebrations.
Charcoal producers seem to be aware of the dangers related to an over exploitation of mangroves. Moreover, all of them declared to be respectful of the local based management plans. Anyway, many said that if they had money, they would eagerly invest in some other activities.


3. Fishing
Throughout the East African coast, fishing is usually not practised in an intensive way, but many families, carry it out mainly for local consumption. In fact, usually, fish markets are very well developed and self consumption rate is rather high, which satisfies the protein need of the villagers.

According to the gear used, it is possible to define three types of fishing. The cheapest type is by hand lines or harpoons. The second one is fishing by traps (uzio): they consist of a "fence" of small sticks hammered in the ground of the coastline, in the area between the limits of the tides. They are put during the low tide and they trap the fishes that arrive with the new high tide and are left behind in the fenceas the sea recedes.

The more profitable fishing is the one carried out with boats and nets. Table II describes these different techniques practised along the Swahili coasts. Of all the uses of fishing gears that of fishing traps is the most demanding, especially in preparing it: people have to tie the sticks to one another tightly to obtain a barrier long up to 20 m. Moreover, fishing with traps depends in a double way on mangrove: directly as the sticks come from the roots of Rhizophora mucronata and indirectly, because, as documented, fishes depend on the habitat offered by mangrove forest.


With so many profitable uses of mangrove trees, let us do our best to conserve them:)

Special Thanks and Acknowledgements to:

http://www.dbag.unifi.it/mangroves/human/uses1.htm

Posted by:

Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong

Yes, mangrove swamps have very harsh climates. Amazingly, many plants can survive in such harsh conditions. An interesting article explains how...

One of the most amazing adaptations that mangrove trees, such as the red mangrove, have is the ability to use vivipary as a means of reproduction. Unlike most organisms of the plant kingdom, mangrove trees do not disperse seeds as a mechanism of reproduction, instead the seed continues to develop into a seedling while still attached to the parent plant. There is no dormant stage for seed because of the harsh environment that the propagule is dropped in to. However, the seedlings can grow to around seventy centimeters before dropping from the parent plant, so the seedlings are well equipped for survival by the time they hit the water.

This fascinating evolutionary adaptation is most developed in mangrove species and, as a group of Chinese scholars showed, vivipary has multiple evolutionary origins in different mangrove lineages, but they all converged to produce the same mechanism because vivipary is advantageous for their survival in the tidal regions. While others previously had proposed that vivipary was necessary because of the introduction of the propagule into salty and deep water; Tomlinson and Cox concluded that, ivipary, at least in mangrove Rhizophoraceaes related to a successful establishment strategy in tidally influenced habitats because it produces an elongated seedling that is also capable of long-distance dispersal.? The tide carries the seedling away so that it can take root someplace where the canopy is open, instead of in the shade of its parent tree. Then it is the specialized characteristics of the propagule, such as the ability to float and self erect when on land that are key for the survival of mangrove trees.

Once implanted however, mangrove trees have developed to survive the harsh environment. Most other plants could not survive on the coast of the ocean because of the salt levels in the water. The cells of most plants, when introduced to super concentrated salt water, lose water to their environment through osmosis, causing the plant to wilt. Mangal species are halophytes, but can also withstand the varying salinities of the brackish water that occurs where fresh water and sea water merge. Two mechanisms employed by the different mangrove species in order to withstand the salty conditions are salt secretion and ultrfiltration. Salt secretors have specialized salt glands on their leaves that use energy to secrete sodium chloride.

On the leaves, the salt evaporates and crystallizes, such that the crystals are visible on the leaf surface. In these plants the sap is one-tenth as concentrated as sea water, which means some salt is excluded at the roots. Non-secretors, however, have sap that is one-hundredth the concentration of sea water, which is still 100 times more concentrated than normal land plants. The non-secretors filter the water they take in by selectively absorbing certain ions into the roots. At the same time, the surface area used for absorption is smaller in these mangrove plants due to the absence of root hairs. Some of the salt that ends up in the plant is lost at the leaf surface through transpiration, while the rest is stored in the leaves of the plant. Here the cells must increase in volume to take in the ions, thus the leaves become more succulent. Eventually the leaves will be dropped, thus the plant will be void of its highly concentrated parts.

Mangrove plants also have to cope with the difficulties of the often anaerobic soil and high water levels that are encountered in the coastal areas they inhabit. The roots are the site of most of the oxygen intake of plants, so the trouble for mangroves is that the soil is often not well aerated and many times during the day the roots can be completely submerged in water. Therefore, aerial roots developed in mangrove plants becoming a prominent feature of mangals. Different species adopt different ways to aerate their roots; for this reason, prop roots, stilt roots, kneed roots, pneumatophores, and plank roots are all prevalent. Prop and stilt roots arise from the trunk and form flying buttresses at the base of the tree. Kneed roots are horizontal roots that sporadically grow vertically into a loop before continuing with horizontal growth. The loops are thickened and create distinct knobs along the ground. Pneumatophores are extensions of roots that grow through the ground and stand vertically from the soil. Plank roots are horizontal roots that extend vertically along the length of the root. The aerial parts of these roots, specialized for mangrove environments, make the mangrove trees successful with respect to gas exchange. However, other parts of the root systems are specialized for anchoring the tree and absorbing nutrients in the loose soil, as well as the horizontal component which unifies the aerial and anchoring root parts.

The survival method of mangrove trees is amazing and complex, yet through history humans have always been unable to see their value because they offer little direct use for mankind. The mangal areas have always been viewed with curiosity, but with little respect and often called wasteland and not seen as aesthetically pleasing. As coastlines became more in demand for waterfront property, people ignored the importance of mangrove trees, seeing no problem in wiping them out. What people did not understand was that they were ruining a vital aspect of the coastal protection from the ocean and taking away a huge portion of biodiversity. Mangrove] ecosystems harbour 193 plant species, 397 fish, 259 crabs, 256 molluscs, 450 insects and more than 250 other associated species. Mangrove ecosystems have the highest level of productivity among natural ecosystems, said experts from India. On a worldwide scale, almost half of the mangrove ecosystems have be devastated.

The mangrove ecosystem may not be as appealing to the common people right now, but the long-term indirect economic value of the mangrove buffer areas is enormous. The mangrove roots keep shorelines intact, protecting from further erosion and loss of coastline when threatened by storms. In the event of a hurricane, the mangrove ecosystem would take the blunt of the hit, acting as a buffer between the land, houses, and the ocean. Seeing as the mangroves hold such value in preventing property damage, they also carry an economic benefit. Mangroves can also tolerate a large amount of wastewater because of the fast rate of nutrient cycling and detritus decomposition. The protection mangrove ecosystems provide, together with the diversity of the area out weighs the developmental values the coastland could ever provide. The mangrove ecosystem not only holds great value for humans, but also is a marvel of the way organisms can change to become adapted to new environments.

From the details of mangrove tree reproduction, to the way the mangrove trees deal with salt, to the robust way the tree anchors itself and exchanges gas at the roots, all combine to create an environment that is a safe haven for other organisms. It is amazing to see how the smallest details of one species help it to survive, as well as helping to keep so many other organisms living. After all that the mangrove ecosystems provide, humans still oblivious to this fact, continue carelessly destroying tree after tree.

Isn't it amazing how these plants are so "strong" to survive the harsh climates? Hope that you enjoyed reading the article!

Special Thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu/fieldcourses07/PapersCostaRicaArticles/EvolutionaryAdaptationsof.html
Works CitedJanzen, Daniel H. (1983).
Costa Rican Natural History. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 273-276. Lugo, A.

Snedaker, S. (1961, July).

The Ecology of Mangroves. Miami News. Shi, S., Huang, Y. Zeng, K., Tan, F., He, H., Huang, J., Fu, Y. (2005).

Molecular Phylogenetic analysis of mangroves: independent evolutionary origins ofVivipary and salt secretion. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, (34)159-166. Tomlinson, P.B. (1986).

The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, P.B., Cox, P.A. (2000)

Systematic and functional anatomy of seedlingsin mangrove Rhizophoraceae: vivipary explained? Botanical Journal of the LinneanSociety, 134: 215?31.Upadhyay, V.P., Ranjan, R. and Singh, J. S. (2002, December).

Human-MangroveConflicts: The Way Out. Current Science, Vol. 83, No. 11.

Posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


From the birds that roost in the leafy canopy to the crabs that scurry about the trunks and the sponges and barnacles that live on submerged "roots", it is easy to see that a variety of organisms call the mangrove habitat home.

Mangroves are trees that live at or near the water's edge in protected marine habitats. This means that, while you are likely to find mangroves along the calm banks of the IRL you won't find them on wave-beaten ocean shores.

There are several different types of mangrove trees in the IRL, and they are not very closely related to one another. So what makes a mangrove tree a mangrove tree?T ere are several features that all species of mangrove trees have in common: olerance to conditions of high soil salinity. Tolerance to submergence in water or waterlogged soil, and to low oxygen conditions. Reproduction by means of specialized seeds called "seedlings.

In the middle of a mangrove clump (called a "mangle"), the amount of salt in the soil can be up to three times the amount found in ocean water. This concentration of salt is due to repeated flooding of the soil, followed by evaporation of water, leaving the salt behind. Mangrove trees are adapted to survive in salty soils that would kill most other kinds of plants. This is one reason why mangrove trees can thrive in areas too harsh for other vegetation. Some species, like the black mangrove, actually get rid of excess salt by "sweating" it out of their leaves.

Have you ever gone snorkeling before? If you have, then you have something in common with the black mangrove tree. Black mangroves survive in water- logged soil by using special "root snorkels" called pneumatophores. These structures are covered with small holes called lenticils that allow the roots to breathe the same way a snorkel lets you breathe while underwater.

Most plants produce seeds which don't sprout until they are planted. Mangrove seeds are different because they actually start to grow into a new plant while they are still attached to the parent tree. We call these specialized seeds seedlings. The picture shows you what seedlings from a red mangrove tree look like.The reason mangroves use these special seedlings is that the head- start in growth it gives young mangroves allows them to quickly take root when they are deposited in a favorable growing area. Ordinary seeds would probably be washed away before they have a chance to start growing.

Some plants, like dandelions, disperse their seeds by means of the wind. Other plants, such as apple trees, rely on animals to help disperse their seeds. Unlike these plants, the seedlings of mangrove trees are carried away from the parent tree by water. The picture shows an underwater view of several floating red mangrove seedlings.
If and when the tides or currents transport the seedlings to an area suitable for growth, the young mangrove quickly roots itself and begins the next stage of its life. Here, you can see several newly arriving seedlings growing along with some slightly older trees.

There are many plant and animal species which live within the mangrove community and depend on this unique habitat for their continued existence. Some, like the mangrove tree crab shown here, live upon the emergent (out of water) portions of mangrove trees. Pelicans and other seabirds also roost in the canopies of mangrove trees. Often, they form large rookeries - nesting assemblages of adult birds and their offspring - during the breeding season.

Other species, such as theyoung mangrove snappers spend the first years of their lives living within the submerged tangle of mangrove roots. Here, these fish find an abundance of food to eat, while remaining protected from larger predators which inhabit more open waters. Submerged portions of mangrove trees also provide living space for organisms which require a hard surface on which to live. Mangrove trees are very important in the IRL because there is very little hard bottom. The picture shows some of the organisms commonly found on submerged mangrove roots, including algae, sponges, sea squirts and barnacles.

Now that we have discussed the various features which all mangroves share, let's take a closer look at the three most important mangrove species which occur along the IRL - the red, black and white mangroves. Click on each photograph to learn more about a particular species.
Red Mangrove - Rhizophora mangle
Black Mangrove - Avicenna germinans
White Mangrove - Laguncularia racemosa

Special thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/BotanicalSciences/MostThreatened/MangroveHabitats/MangroveHabitats/MangroveHabitats.htm
http://www.epa.gov

Posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong

Tuesday, February 24, 2009

Are the increase in prawn farms causing the destruction of mangroves?
THE ANSWER IS YES!!!

Read the following article to find out more:
On July 26th, people in coastal regions from all over the world demonstrated against the shrimp farming industry, calling for the conservation of precious mangrove areas. Thirty percent of the shrimp and prawns produced worldwide come from ponds carved from mangrove areas. Mangroves, the coastal equivalent of rainforests, provide homes for an amazing range of plant and animal life, support the livelihood of local communities, and defend the coast from erosion and storms.

The single greatest threat to mangroves worldwide is shrimp farming - about 35 percent of mangroves worldwide have been lost in the last 20 years.Previously a luxury item only consumed on special occasions, prawns and shrimps are now turning into an everyday product - Britain's favourite starter after all is the prawn cocktail. Consumers in the US, Japan, and the European Union - the main importers - are often not aware of the destruction that lies behind one of their favourite dishes.

Shrimp farming requires the clear-cutting of mangroves to build ponds. Once the mangroves are ripped out, the coast is rendered unstable and many creatures lose their habitat. Fish catches decline and ecosystems are knocked out of balance. The ponds are treated with antibiotics, pesticides, and fish-feeds, with the toxic mix often dumped into the surrounding land or waterways.In addition to the loss of biodiversity, local communities depend on this coastal ecology for their food and livelihood. The destruction of mangrove areas means these communities lose their only source of income.

On July 26th, global protests took place near cities and towns where industrial shrimp farming and mangrove loss are problems. Over a dozen countries were involved including Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Kenya, Nigeria, Germany, and the US. It marked the beginning of a stronger international network of small-scale fisher.

So, in short, the summary of this article is:
- The reason why prawn and shrimp farms cause destruction in mangroves is because 30% of these farms are carved from mangrove areas.
- This means that with every shrimp farm that opens, a mangrove area is destroyed.
- About 35% of mangroves have been lost in a year.
- Many people love eating prawns and shrimps, in fact, it is our favourite dish! Hence, consumres do not care about the decreasing numbers of mangroves.

Why are mangroves important?
- They provie animals and plants with a suitable habitat to live in
- Local communities depend on mangroves of food and livelihood
- Mangroves defend the coasts from storms and erosion
- Mangroves are the coastal equivalent of rainforest!

So, do your part and save the mangroves before they disappear!


Special thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/whaling/precious-mangroves-threatened-by-shrimp-and-prawn-farming-july-26th-international-day-of-the-mangroves

Posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


Adaptations made by animals living in mangroves

The mangrove habitat can be divided into different zones, and different organisms can be found in each area. Behind the mangroves, away from the water’s edge, is the driest area in this habitat, the salt flat. This area is only flooded during high tides. Thus, at low tides, the salt flats are left exposed. So, animals that live on the salt flat are left exposed. So, animals that live on the salt flat are at risk of drying out and, therefore, have special adaptations that allow them to survive.

Some animals, including several species of crab, avoid this by living in burrows sealed by ‘plugs’.Mudflats are the areas in front of the mangroves. As the incoming tides flood this area, animals, such as fishes, move in to feed. These animals retreat with the falling tide. Other animals, including snails and sea cucumbers, retreat into burrows as the water level drops, while other such as fiddler crabs, emerge to forage. Some animals such as barnacles, oysters and snails live on the trunks and leaves of the trees. Few species feed directly on the mangrove trees, instead they feed on decomposing leaves and wood. Mangroves provide important nursery grounds for many species of fishes and crustaceans (e.g. prawns). The mass of roots and the muddy waters allow the young and small animals to evade their predators.

Posted by
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


"If there are no mangrove forests, then there will have no meaning. It is like having a tree with no roots, for the mangroves are the roots of the sea."

Growing in the inter-tidal areas and estuary mouths between land and sea, mangroves provide critical habitat for a diverse marine and terrestrial flora and fauna. Healthy mangrove forests are key to a healthy marine ecology. The best of mangroves are found in Asia, especially in India and Bangladesh. The main culprit in the destruction of mangroves is Man. To achieve supremacy over Nature, human beings have destroyed this magnificent ecosystem almost irreparably. Land reclamations and industrial effluents are the major causes for mangrove degradation. The western bank of the Thane creek is the single largest mangrove belt in Mumbai. The Vikhroli Mangrove Park in Mumbai, where around 30 species of birds are found during winter, enhances the unique quality of this place.

Why should we protect mangroves?
• Mangroves are buffers between the land and sea and hence they protect the land from erosion. • They are land builders.
• They harbour a variety of life forms like invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and even mammals like tigers.
• Mangroves are the main source of income generation for shoreline communities like fisher folk.

Special thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/44171098.cms

posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


The Abiotic Components:
The non-living components such as:
1. pH value - soil and water
2. Light intensity as source of energy
3. Temperature
4. Humidity
5. Amount of water vapour present in the air
6. Topography - Physical Feautures of land (altitude, gradient and aspect of gradient)
7. Microclimate - Climate in a microhabitat

The Biotic Components:
The living organisms in the enivronment such as:
1. Producers- synthesize organic substances (plants)
2. Consumers - Eat other organisms (Primary Consumer, Secondary Consumer, Tertiary Consumer)
3. Decomposers - Microorganisms that break down waste products and dead bodies (Bacteria ad Fungi)

Special Thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/6624729/81-the-Abiotic-and-Biotic-Component-of-the-Environment

Posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


Biodiversity : Flora & Fauna


Where can we find mangroves in Singapore?

Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve
In 1986, a group of avid birdwatchers from the then Malayan Nature Society (Singapore Branch) stumbled upon this ecological jewel, and subsequently wrote a proposal to the government for its conservation. The 87 ha wetland site was consequently designated as a nature park in 1989. The then Parks & Recreation Department, a precursor to the National Parks Board, undertook the development of Sungei Buloh, in consultation with experts in the field, notably, the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust from the United Kingdom and Worldwide Fund for Nature. On 6 Dec 1993, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong officially opened the Nature Park.

The Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve covers an area of 130 hectares, and is an important stop-over point for migratory birds during the winter months. The reserve is named after the river which flows through it. "sungei" means "river", while "buloh" means bamboo. However, no native bamboo species were recorded from the area so far.The area was discovered by a a group of birdwatchers from the then Malayan Nature Society (Singapore Branch) in 1986. They subsequently proposed to the government to conserve the area, and eventually 87 hectares of wetlands was designated as a nature park in 1989, and officially opened on 6 Dec 1993 by then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong.

It was officially gazetted as a nature reserve on 1 Jan 2002. Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve was also recognised as a site of international importance for migratory birds with Wetlands International, and was included into the East Asian Australasian Shorebird Site Network.Dos & Don'tsBefore you make your way into the reserve, please ensure that you take steps to minimise damage to the reserve and its inhabitants. You are advised to:1. Stay on the trail! Wandering off the trail may result in trampling of the flora and fauna.2. Keep your volume down, or you may disturb the very animals you want to see, and they may hide away from you.3. Take nothing but photos, leave nothing but foot prints.

Bring your litter out with you, and never take anything from the forest. Poaching has resulted in severe reduction in the population of many wildlife in many places.4. Do not feed any animals, as they may become very dependent on human to feed them, and forget how to find food on their own. Some animals, such as the macaques, may even learn to snatch food from human.Getting StartedThe reserve has several trails, shelters and boardwalks to allow you to have a good view of the various organisms living there.

A good place to start your journey into Sungei Buloh Nature Reserve will be the nature gallery, where there are exhibitions and descriptions of the various things you can expect to see during your trip. It also has a huge model of a mud lobster mound, which is very popular with kids.If you follow the guided walk provided by the volunteers at Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, you will usually be given a tour around the mangrove boardwalk, the bridge and the main hide.

Over the years, the unique place that is Sungei Buloh charmed people from all strata of society to support its cause. It welcomed its 100,000th visitor in 1994. In 1997, the Park found its corporate sponsor in HSBC, which set up the Sungei Buloh Education Fund in support of its nature outreach programmes. In 1999, Woodlands Secondary School became the first school to adopt the park. It was followed by Commonwealth Secondary School in 2001 and Hillgrove Secondary in 2002.

On 10 November, 2001, National Development Minister Mah Bow Tan announced that Sungei Buloh would be one of two parks to be gazetted as Nature Reserves. On 1 Jan 2002, 130-ha of Sungei Buloh was officially gazetted as a nature reserve and renamed as Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve to better reflect its status.

In the same year, Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve was recognized as a site of international importance for migratory birds with :
Wetlands International presenting the reserve a certificate to mark its formal entry into the East Asian Australasian Shorebird Site Network, which include Australia's Kakadu National Park, China's Mai Po and Japan's Yatsu Tidal Flats.
Sungei Buloh became Singapore’s first ASEAN Heritage Park in 2003.

Sungei Mandai Mangroves

Mandai Mangroves lead to Sungei Buloh Nature Reserve and are often considered part of it. This is a popular location for bird-watching, fishing and crab-catching. The Mandai Mangroves are located in the vicinity of Sungei Mandai, the river that began the story of the Mandai district. Today, the area is one of the habitats of rare flora, fauna and animals in Singapore.

Pasir Ris Park

At the North-eastern part of Singapore Island, Pasir Ris Park is dissected into three parts by the rivers, Sungei Api Api and Sungei Tampines. Work on this 70.52 hectare park began in 1988 on land reclaimed between 1978 to 1979.
A 5-hectare patch of mature mangrove forest was preserved during reclamation and development by maintaining tidal inundation—rivulet was dug to connect the patch with Sungei Tampines. An additional one hectare of levelled vacant ground was also subjected to the inundation in 1989.The park, administered by the National Parks Board, is mostly for recreation with lawns and planted ornamental trees, a tower, various landscaped features, besides the mangrove area which has boardwalks and educational sign boards to describe the biology of mangrove organisms.

Pasir Ris is Malay for 'beach bolt-rope', implying a narrow beach. The park is open 24 hrs, and there is no entrance fee. Bicycle rental is available at the park. Visitors can spend half a day travelling around wooden walkways, which reduce damage to the substrate and allow you a close but comfortable look at the forest without getting you muddy.The bulk of the mangrove area is a mature community with textbook features, especially the diverse number of tree species, unlike the managed mangrove forests in Malaysia where only a few commercially valuable species are found. The mangroves consist of the more common species such as trees of Avicennia alba, A. officinalis and A. rumphiana, Bruguiera cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, the ferns Acrostichum aureum, A. speciosum, and the shrubs Acanthus ebracteatus, and A. ilicifolius amongst others.

It also has rarer species such Aegiceras corniculatum, Bruguiera parviflora and Rhizophora stylosa, which are all considered endangered locally.You can observe mudskippers grazing, and displaying their territorial and mating behaviour in the canals that drain through the park during low tide. Fiddler crabs can be seen easily at the sandy areas at the eastern-most edge.This mangrove patch is under constant threat of having the salinity of the soil flushed out. The more aggressive freshwater species will invade the patch once the salinity declines so the tidal inundation is imperative for its maintenance. Most mangrove species can cope with freshwater but cannot compete with freshwater species in a primarily freshwater environment.

Chek Jawa, Pulau Ubin

What's so special about Chek Jawa?The beauty of Chek Jawa is that several different ecosystems can be seen in one small area. These ecosystems and the plants and animals found there are no longer common in Singapore. They are also fast disappearing elsewhere in the world.

Coastal Hill Forest
The hill overlooking Chek Jawa is covered with trees and plants that shelter and feed a variety of animals. Many of these plants and animals are no longer commonly seen on mainland Singapore. Some of the rare birds you may spot include the Oriental pied-hornbill and the Red junglefowl. Among the beautiful and unusual trees you may see is the Delek air tree. However, the star is 'Priscilla the Pig' a tame wild boar that often emerges from the forest to greet visitors.

Mangroves
The mangroves of Chek Jawa have many interesting plants and animals. Mangrove trees have unusual shapes and properties as they are adapted to being covered in seawater at high tide and to grow in soft mud. Mudskippers are the highlight of a visit to the mangroves.

Rocky shore
Chek Jawa is among the few places left with a natural rocky shore, gravel beach and other interesting rock formations. At low tide, we can have a closer look at some of the strange animals that live here, including barnacles, crabs and fierce shell-drilling snails. Under the rocks are even more amazing animals such as living cowries, sea stars and fast flat crabs.

Sandy shore and sand bar
The shore teems with tiny crabs which, if undisturbed, go about their amusing antics at low tide. The sand bar is the backbone of Chek Jawa and provides a home for all manner of intriguing creatures. The Common sea star is a must-see with visitors, and fortunately, it is plentiful on Chek Jawa. Sadly, it is no longer common elsewhere in Singapore. The sand dollar is another intriguing creature to examine. The sand bar is also a popular rest stop for shorebirds that fly in from as far away as Siberia. Overhead, majestic birds of prey hunt for fishes in the sea.

Seagrass lagoon
A calm, shallow lagoon lush with seagrasses and seaweeds form behind the sand bar. Here, a rich variety of marine creatures shelter during the low tide. First-time visitors are often stunned by the carpet anemones which are bigger than your face and come in a stunning variety of colours. At some times of the year, the seagrass may be dotted with colourful sea cucumbers. Other seagrass dwellers include secretive crabs and snails. A lucky visitor may also encounter sea hares, squids and mantis shrimp.

Coral Rubble Area
The coral rubble area is probably the richest part of Chek Jawa and also the most fragile. Rarely exposed, even at low tide, this area shelters delicate sea creatures that prefer to be submerged most of the time. These include sponges in bewildering shapes and colours, delicate fan worms and even living corals! Octopuses, seahorses, nudibranchs and colourful flatworms are some of the other amazing residents of this special part of Chek Jawa.


Special Thanks and Acknowledgements to:
http://www.sbwr.org.sg/aboutus/ourhistory/
http://tidechaser.blogspot.com/2009/01/sungei-buloh-wetland-reserve.html
http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/guidebooks/text/1017.htm
http://www.wildsingapore.com/chekjawa/text/a001.htm

Posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


Products of Mangroves

Non-Food Products
- Sawn Timber
Produced by Heritiera and Xylocarpus and they produce high-quality timber but are unfortunately very scarce.

- Poles
Made from Rhizophora species (bakau piles) and one of the most common extraction product in the region and are easily harvested by manual methods and they have a short crop-rotation period in managed forests like the one in the Malay Peninsula.

- Fuel Wood/ Charcoal
This may be used directly or after conversion into charcoal. Rhizophora species wood have a high calorific value meaning that they produce more heat for the same weight, and are thus the major species exploited. Charcoal manufacture still occurs in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. For examples, managed forests are found in Peninsular Malaysia.

- Tannins and Dyes
Bark of mangrove trees are harvested as a source of tannin for the tanning industry. High tannin content is found especially in members of the Rhizophoraceae, to increase their resistance to herbivores. With development of cheap synthetic tannic acids after World War II, the commercial exploitation of mangrove bark has dropped to almost zero. Mangrove sap is, however, still used by East Africans or Polynesians to make the black dye for tapa cloth.

- Raw materials for industries
Mangrove trees are exploited for the lignocellulose for the manufacture of chipboard, pulpwood (newspaper and cardboard) or synthetic materials (e.g., rayon).

Food Products

-Nipah Products
These include industrial ethanol from distillation of the fermented plant sap from a decapitated inflorescence, vinegar or fermented beverages, sugar (gula melaka) by boiling the plant sap, attap or thatch for roofing huts, cigarette papers from the stripped surface layers of the leaf lets and a form of salt from the ashed leaflets. The endosperm of the unripe seed (attap chee) is soaked in a syrup and is a common component (and some say significant part) of a local dessert called ice-kacang. The fruit is harvested from the Nipah and other palms and processed in a syrup before being sold.

-Seafood
Oysters, clams, mussels, cockles and other shellfish may be harvested directly or cultivated for consumption. Prawn and crab ponds converted from mangrove areas were a common sight in Singapore until recently. The Blood cockle (Anadara granosa, Family Arcidae) is actually a mudflat animal and rather rare in Singapore. Large quantities, however, are imported from neighbouring countries. In many areas, cockles are actually cultured.

-Fish
(Grouper, milkfish, mullet, sea bass, tilapia) are grown in ponds, floating cages or corrals which are fenced up areas in sheltered waters. In Taiwan, mudskippers are cultured. Mud crabs (Scylia spp.) are cultivated or fattened in such ponds. Many larger species of sesarmine crabs (e.g. Tree-climbing or Vinegar crabs) are collected in large numbers in Thailand and Indonesia for food. Stockpiling and game farming of nearshore marine animals such as cockles, giant clams and sea cucumbers are practised by Indonesians and Melanesians.

-Edible Plant Products
Commercial honey is extracted from some mangrove areas as many of the flowers are animal-pollinated and have nectar as a reward. In Taiwan, Gracilaria, a red algae, is cultivated in abandoned fish ponds or old saltpans, as raw material for agar-agar.

-Live Pet Food
Small frogs sold in aquariums as live food for carnivorous fish and other animals are usually juvenile Crab-eating frogs (Rana cancrivora).

Special thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/guidebooks/text/1022a.htm

Posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


Various types of subsistence and commercial extraction of mangrove products are identified on the North Brazilian coast. Of 2500 households in 21 rural communities (about 13.000 people) near the Caeté estuary, 83% derive subsistenceincome, and 68% cash income through use of mangrove resources.

The mangrove crab (Ucides cordatus) is collected and sold by42% of households, and constitutes a main income source for 38%. Including processing and trading occupations, over half of the investigated population dependon the mangrove crab for financial income. Mangrove fishery occupies the lower rural income groups in the fisheries sector. About 30% of households engage in commercial fishing in or near the mangrove.

Illegal commercial and subsistence use of mangrove wood and bark maintains a considerable number of rural households. In the context of widespread rural poverty in coastal NorthBrazil, it is important for mangrove management to take into account subsistence production, which has a central socio-economic function for the rural poor who live close to the mangroves. Socio-economic priorities in mangrove villages were, in order of importance,educational quality, occupational options,medical care, the low level of mangrove product prices, access to electricity and local leadership quality.

Mangrove Products Multiple income sources at the household level are common in rural areas of Amazonia, especially where occupational specialization at the household level is lessviable because of low population densitiesand limited market size. Dependence on the mangrove by the rural population is also very diverse as specialization in onesingle target commonly does not meet the subsistence demands of a family (Tables12.1 and 12.2). Therefore, in the following,the different mangrove products are listed separately. The most heavily exploited resource in Brazilian mangroves is the leaf litter-consuming semiterrestrial crab. Morethan 60% of rural subsistence fisher householdsand over half of the rural commercial fisher households collect crabs for sale(Diele, 2000; Glaser and Diele, 2004).Ucides cordatus is a relatively large and slow-growing crab living in burrows. In theCaeté estuary, it reaches a size of up to 9 cm.



Special Thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/m608n16061182671/
http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/CABI_Publications

Posted by:
Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


How are mangroves destroyed and why are they destroyed?

They are drained as a sanitary measure, although the salty water doesn’t attract mosquitoes and other insects which lay their eggs in the water. Often, mangrove areas are used to dump rubbish or garbage. On islands where unoccupied land is in short supply, mangroves are often cleared to make agricultural land, or filled in for construction. Large areas have been lost to development in this way. However, such low-lying land are easily flooded during storms, so the development is not always so successful.

In some places mangroves are cleared to make aquaculture ponds for raising fish or shrimp. Ponds may also be built to treat the wastes from cities, towns or factories. Other kinds of construction can also damage mangroves. Anything that changes the way water circulates or its saltiness can kill the affected mangroves. Taking water from rivers for irrigation can reduce the amount of fresh-water available to mix with the salt-water.

Roads or construction projects like a causeway might keep out sea-water from entering the mangroves. As the sea-water is replaced by fresh-water, the mangroves will die. Mangroves are also sensitive to pollution, particularly oil pollution. If an oil spill goes into a mangrove area, the oil covers the aerial roots, and the tree roots can no longer get the air they need to live. The roots will die, and slowly, the whole forest will die too. Mangroves are also very sensitive to herbicides.

Special thanks and acknowledgements to:
http://islands.unep.ch/siemc10.htm

Posted by Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong


Ecology:
A mangrove is a plant and a mangal is a plant community and habitat where mangroves thrive.
They are found in tropical and sub-tropical tidal areas, and as such have a high degree of salinity.
Plants in mangals are diverse but all are able to exploit their habitat by developing physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. There are many species of flora and fauna in the mangroves. Each species has its own capabilities and solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods of coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species at any location within the intertidal zone is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, like tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs.


Nature, at the highest level of organisation, consists of the ecosphere which includes all living things (biosphere) together with non-living parts (atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere). The next level is the biome which consists of groups of similar ecosystems over large geographic areas. Next is the ecosystem, which is a self-regulating community of organisms and their non-living environment.The community, consists of interacting populations (single-species groups) of all the different plants and animals in the area, which in this case, is the mangrove. Thus essentially, the mangrove community is the biotic part of this ecosystem.
Mangroves are very important because they supports a huge variety of organisms, including many interesting animals.

The mangrove is a very harsh environment to live in. The soil is very poor in oxygen and very unstable, which is why many of the trees have roots exposed to the air to take in more oxygen, and the roots often spread over a wide area to allow the trees to stabilise themselves on the soft mud. The bakau trees (Rhizophora spp.) above have prop and stilt roots to serve the above functions. The wood from this tree can be made into charcoal or furniture. The above image shows the prop and stilt roots of the bakau kurap (Rhizophora mucronata) and the propagules of bakau minyak (Rhizophora apiculata).

Another harsh condition faced by mangrove plants is that they will be soaked in salt water, which can remove water from the plant tissues through osmosis. To deal with this condition, plants like the Rhizophora, Bruguiera and the mangrove apple (Sonneratia alba) can selectively absorb only certain ions from the sea water through a process called ultrafiltration. But this process is not 100% effective, and some salt still gets into the trees, and will be removed by transpiration of the leaf surfaces or accumulated in old leaves. The sea apple has cone shape pneumatophores (i.e. upward extension of the root system).

Posted byAbigail Lim, Nicole lim and Angelyn Ong

Sungei Buloh is a place teeming with animals and plants. Here are some pictures our photographer, Nicole Lim took at Sungei Buloh Wetland Nature Reserve.

Thanks for viewing!

Special thanks and acknowledgements to:

www.tidechaser.blogspot.com

www.google.com

Posted by Abigail Lim, Nicole Lim and Angelyn Ong

Profile

hello:)
we are a group of three secondary two girls from PLMGS
namely Abigail, Nicole and Angelyn.
This is a blog we have made to showcase our reflections and what we have learnt
at our recent sungei buloh trip.
Do enjoy your stay here, and happy browsing!
And do remember to credit us if you use our information and posts!
Thanks you:]

Click to navigate

Introduction
what are mangroves?
Red mangroves
Black Mangroves
White Mangroves
Button Mangroves
Mangrove Functions and values
Ecology
Economy
Flora and Fauna
Physial and Human Threats
Mangroves in Singapore
Why and how can mangroves be destroyed?
Conservation of mangroves
Biodiversity: Flora and Fauna
Biodiversity: Abiotic & Biotic components
History of mangroves
Products Of Mangroves
Prawn farms and Mangrove farms
The conditions of mangroves
Adaption of animals
How plants survive the harsh conditions
Importance of mangrove trees
Uses for man
Protecting Mangrove Forsts
Food Chain
Photo Album
reflections

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February 2009

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